Time Flies

Petrified Forest National Park, Arizona

“Petrified wood was formed [in today’s Petrified Forest National Park] during the triassic period and is 4 times as hard as granite and very colorful, due to the effect of impurities such as iron, manganese, copper and lithium present in the wood during the fossilising process.”  The American Southwest, Petrified Forest National Park Geology.

Antelope Canyon, Arizona

“Navajo sandstone of Antelope Canyon was formed by aeolian depositions — sediment deposited by activity of the wind. Such depositions at Antelope Canyon began around 191 million to 174 million years ago during the Jurassic period. Iron oxide deposits were mixed with the windblown sands, resulting in layer after layer of varying shades of orange and red.” LiveScience, Antelope Canyon Photos: Where Water Runs Through Rocks.

The canyons themselves were carved much much later.

Bisti/De-Na-Zin Wilderness Area, New Mexico

Dinosaurs (notably duckbilled and horned dinosaurs) roamed the Bisti/De-Na-Zin Wilderness Area, leaving fossils in the soft swampy sediment.  New Mexico Bureau of Geology & Mineral Resources. 

Fossils of the Middle Rio Puerco Valley, New Mexico

“During much of the Cretaceous a narrow strip of sea split North America into two land masses. The western shoreline moved backward and forward through what are now the western states of New Mexico, Colorado, Wyoming, Arizona, Utah, and Montana. As the shoreline shifted, parts of New Mexico were (alternately) underwater, beach front properties, or dry land. Finally, as the Cretaceous drew to a close, the sea retreated northeastward out of New Mexico, leaving the northeastern corner last.”  New Mexico Bureau of Geology & Mineral Resources.  This shallow sea deposits marine fossils throughout the Middle Rio Puerco Valley northwest of Albuquerque.

Dinosaur Footprints at Clayton Lake State Park, New Mexico

In the northeastern corner of New Mexico, twelve miles north of the town of Clayton, an earth dam was constructed in the 1970s across Seneca Creek that resulted in the formation of Clayton Lake. The excavation of the spillway, and a flood in 1982 that swept away a layer of silt from the spillway, uncovered an unexpected bonanza of dinosaur tracks, preserved in the Early Cretaceous sandstones of the upper Dakota Group, dated at about 100 million years old. Localities of the Cretaceous.

Monument Rocks, Kansas

“Monument Rocks [in western Kansas] is a relatively large, isolated, and weathered outcrop of chalk that preserves rock layers deposited 87-82 million years ago. The rock layers were formed through the accumulation of the remains of untold billions of small, photosynthetic algae called coccolithophores that had skeletons composed of calcium carbonate.” Geology of the Western Interior Seaway.

Volcanoes of Middle Rio Puerco Valley, New Mexico

The Mount Taylor Volcanic field is active, leaving volcanic craters and necks across north central New Mexico, including the Middle Rio Puerco Valley. New Mexico Museum of Natural History & Science. 

Jemez Caldera, New Mexico

One of the largest volcanoes in the world is situated just northeast of Albuquerque, along two important fault lines.  This caldera was created 1.25 million years ago, and has evolved dramatically ever since.  It is 13 miles wide, and is an important ecological research area.  It is also home to the Jemez Pueblo.

El Malpais National Monument, New Mexico

The McCarty’s Lava Flow Field of the El Malpais National Monument is active, leaving long flows across west central New Mexico.  New Mexico Museum of Natural History & Science. 

Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming

"The most recent volcanic activity at Yellowstone consisted of rhyolitic lava flows that erupted approximately 70,000 years ago. The largest of these flows formed the Pitchstone Plateau in southwestern Yellowstone National Park."   USGS Frequently Asked Questions

White Sands, New Mexico

“During the last Ice Age 40,000 to 12,000 years ago, the climate was much colder and wetter. As the climate started to warm around 11,000 years ago rain and snowmelt carried dissolved gypsum from the surrounding mountain ranges into the basin. The gypsum runoff settled in Lake Otero. With the ending of the last Ice Age, about 12,000 years ago, Lake Otero began to evaporate, becoming a playa, or dry lake bed.” National Park Service, White Sands.

Kenai Fjords, Alaska

“The history of Kenai Fjords dates back 23,000 years, with the ice carving out the fjords seen today. According to archaeological evidence, the area also has a long history of human inhabitants, home to Alaskan natives for thousands of years.” All About Kenai Fjords National Park.

Southeast Alaska

"The name Tlingit essentially means human beings. The word was originally used simply to distinguish a human being from an animal, since Tlingits believed that there was little difference between humans and animals. Over time the word came to be a national name. It is speculated that human occupation of southeast Alaska occurred 11,000 years ago by Tlingit people. Haida people, with whom the Tlingit have frequent interaction, have only been in the area about 200 years, and the Tsimpsian migrated only recently from the Canadian interior mainland." Countries and their Cultures, Tlingit.

Wrangell Petroglyphs

"While there are numerous hypotheses about the origins of the more than 40 rock carvings etched here—one of the highest known concentrations of petroglyphs in Alaska and around the world—the one most often agreed upon by archaeologists is that they were etched roughly 8,000 years ago by the Tlingit (pronounced CLINK-it), an Alaska Native group that continues to inhabit the state’s southeastern archipelago. But when it comes to the petroglyphs’ intended purpose, that’s where things remain a mystery." - Smithsonian Magazine.

Anta da Candeeira, Burial Chamber (Dolmen), Redondo, Portugal

These ancient burial sites were constructed from large slabs of stone, and then buried to create prominent mounds.  Over the millennia, the soil eroded, leaving these fascinating “small houses.”

Cromeleque and Menir of Almendres, Ebora, Portugal

“BUILT OVER SEVERAL DIFFERENT PERIODS between 5000 and 4000 BCE, the Almendres Cromlech are the finest example of Neolithic structures on the Iberian Peninsula, though it remained undiscovered until 1966.  The site consists of several classic megalithic structures, primarily cromlechs, and menhir stones. Arranged in patterns of two concentric rings – an eastern circle and a larger oval in the west – the 95 almond-shaped stones seen today represent a gradual process of accumulation and redistribution over time.”  Atlas Obscura.

Skara Brae, Orkney Islands, Scotland

"Skara Brae dates back to Neolithic times, over 5,000 years ago. Radiocarbon dating suggests that people were living in Skara Brae for around 650 years between 3180 B.C.E and 2,500 B.C.E, making it older than Stonehenge and the Great Pyramids of Giza.  The village itself consisted of around 10 stone structures, each quite similar in size [around 117 square metres (387 square feet)] and layout. Each has central stone fireplaces, a small dresser for important objects, and stone beds, which would have been covered with straw or heather mattresses and blankets of deer or sheep skin."  Aurora Expeditions, How Old is Skara Brae?

Stones of Stenness Circle and Henge, Orkney Islands, Scotland

“The Stones of Stenness may be the earliest henge monument in the British Isles, built about 5,400 years ago. Their function is unclear, but our best guess is that they were involved in activities and ceremonies celebrating the relationship between living and past communities.  The monument was dated to around 3100 – 2900 BC by radiocarbon analysis of bones found in the ditch surrounding the monument. No longer visible, the ditch would have been at least 4m wide and 2m deep, and was cut into bedrock. The stones were arranged in an oval shape, about 30m in diameter, set within this enclosure.” Historic Environment Scotland.

Canyon de Chelly, Arizona

“This canyon is home to Dine' families who raise livestock, farm lands, and live here. People have lived in these canyons for nearly 5,000 years, which is longer than anyone has lived continuously on the Colorado Plateau. In this place called Tsegi, their homes and images tell us their stories. Today, the park and Navajo Nation work together to manage the rich cultural and natural resources..” National Park Service, Canyon de Chelly.

Callanish Stones, Lewis & Harris, Scotland

“The Callanish Stones (or "Callanish I": Scottish Gaelic: Clachan Chalanais or Tursachan Chalanais) are an arrangement of standing stones placed in a cruciform pattern with a central stone circle, located on the Isle of Lewis, Scotland. They were erected in the late Neolithic era, and were a focus for ritual activity during the Bronze Age. They are near the village of Callanish (Gaelic: Calanais) on the west coast of Lewis in the Outer Hebrides, Scotland.”  Wikipedia

The Great Orme Copper Mine, Wales

During the Bronze Age, copper mined in northern Wales was paired with tin mined in southern England to create bronze tools and weapons.  The mine itself is fascinating, with narrow passages where children once slaved away to dig out small seams.  It must have been a horrible existence to anyone who toiled there.  The mine was rediscovered under a parking lot in 1987, and is one of the most fascinating prehistoric sites we have toured.

Brooks Falls, Alaska

"By 3,500 years ago, the water had lowered so much that the famous Brooks River falls were created. Salmon pooling below the obstacle could be easily harvested - by people or bears. The Brooks area provided an abundance of resources, and communities became even more settled. By 2000 years ago, they were building larger, deeper houses and manufacturing pottery."

National Park Service

Tikal, Guatamala

Deep in the jungles of Guatemala lies Tikal, a Mayan city that dates back as far as the 4th century BCE.  Tikal thrived as a regional power center for most of it’s lifespan, but by 950 was all but deserted.  Today Tikal is a major tourist site, and was included in the movie Start Wars A New Hope in 1877 as the site of the rebel base.

The Roman Theatre of Volterra, Italy

“The Roman Theatre of Volterra is located in the Vallebuona archaeological area, near the medieval walls. Its construction was financed by the Caecina family, as evidenced by the epigraph preserved at the Guarnacci Etruscan Museum in Volterra.  Excavations that began from 1950 under the guidance of Enrico Fiumi dated the construction of the theatre to around the end of the 1st century BC, and brought to light part of the original stairways that were built using the natural slope in a style similar to that of Greek theatres. It's currently possible to observe 19 rows of seats in the central and lower sectors. Due to its size, the entire theatre must have held around 3,500 spectators.”  Visittuscany.com.

Colosseum, Rome, Italy

The Colosseum in Rome was constructed under the emperors Vespasian and Titus.  “The Colosseum is built of travertine limestone, tuff (volcanic rock), and brick-faced concrete. It could hold an estimated 50,000 to 80,000 spectators at various points in its history, having an average audience of some 65,000; it was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles including animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Roman mythology, and briefly mock sea battles.” Wikipedia.

City of York, England

"York was founded in 71 AD when Cerialis and the Ninth Legion constructed a military fortress (castra) on flat ground above the River Ouse near its junction with the River Foss. The fortress was later rebuilt in stone, covered an area of 50 acres, and was inhabited by 6,000 soldiers. The earliest known mention of Eburacum by name is from a wooden stylus tablet from the Roman fortress of Vindolanda along Hadrian's Wall, dated to c. 95–104 AD, where it is called Eburaci. Much of the Roman fortress lies under the foundations of York Minster, and excavations in the Minster's undercroft have revealed some of the original walls."  Wikipedia.

Pompeii and Herculaneum, Italy

“In the autumn of 79 AD, Mount Vesuvius violently spewed forth a deadly cloud of super-heated tephra and gases to a height of 33 km (21 mi), ejecting molten rock, pulverized pumice and hot ash at 1.5 million tons per second, ultimately releasing 100,000 times the thermal energy of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The event gives its name to the Vesuvian type of volcanic eruption, characterised by columns of hot gases and ash reaching the stratosphere, although the event also included pyroclastic flows associated with Pelean eruptions.”  Wikipedia.

Hadrian’s Wall, United Kingdom

“Hadrian's Wall (Latin: Vallum Aelium), also known as the Roman Wall, Picts' Wall, or Vallum Hadriani in Latin, is a former defensive fortification of the Roman province of Britannia, begun in AD 122 in the reign of the emperor Hadrian. Running "from Wallsend on the River Tyne in the east to Bowness-on-Solway in the west", the wall covered the whole width of the island.” Wikipedia.

Redwoods of Northern California, average age

“Authentic records do indicate, however, that at least some individuals reach the age of 2,000 years. The average age of mature trees of this species is from about 800 to 1,500 years.”  The Redwoods of Coast and Sierra.

Civita di Bagnoregio, Italy

“Civita di Bagnoregio is a hilltop village in central Italy. It’s accessed via a pedestrian bridge from the nearby ticket office in Bagnoregio village. The Porta Santa Maria gateway was built by the Etruscans. Founded in the 7th century, the Romanesque San Donato Church sits in the main square. Nearby is the Geological and Landslides Museum, whose exhibits document projects to shore up the village's eroding hillside.” Google.

Chaco Canyon, New Mexico

Chaco Canyon serves as a hub for the Ancestral Pueblan peoples, with roads and networks extending hundreds of miles in all directions.

Bhaktapur, Nepal

“Bhaktapur, also called Bhatgaon or Bhādgaon, town, central Nepal, in the Nepal Valley, southeast of Kāthmāndu. Said to have been founded by Rājā Ananda Malla in 865, it was for 200 years the most important settlement in the valley. The old palace in Durbar Square, built in 1700, is well preserved and has beautifully carved woodwork and a finely worked gilt gateway.” Brittanica.com. 

Guadalupe Ruins, New Mexico

The first Chacoans (Ancestral Puebloans) moved to Guadalupe Mesa in the early 900s, with the first Great House being built in 960.  Evidence suggests that this was a residential community.  Moisture in this area fluctuated year to year, with most water coming from ground water or snow runoff, as opposed to regular rains.  It’s possible that Guadalupe Mesa was continually inhabited, but more likely that Chacoans came and went and came back, following important weather patterns.

Angkor Wat construction, Cambodia

“The Angkor civilization was booming in the early 1100s when construction began on the Angkor Wat temple site. Built as a re-creation of the Hindu universe, its most striking features are the five sandstone towers that rise above the four temple enclosures, representing the peaks of Mount Meru, the center of the universe. The temple is surrounded by a large moat symbolizing the Sea of Milk from which “amrita,” an elixir of immortality, was created.  But by the end of the 13th century, numerous changes were taking place. The last major stone temple at Angkor was constructed in 1295, and the latest Sanskrit inscription dates to the same year.”  The Conversation: Angkor Wat archaeological digs yield new clues to its civilization’s decline.

Lewis Chessmen, Scotland

“The Lewis chessmen (Scottish Gaelic: Fir-thàilisg Leòdhais [fiɾʲˈhaːlɪʃkʲ loː.ɪʃ]) or Uig chessmen, named after the island or the bay where they were found, are a group of distinctive 12th century chess pieces, along with other game pieces, most of which are carved from walrus ivory. Discovered in 1831 on Lewis in the Outer Hebrides of Scotland, they may constitute some of the few complete, surviving medieval chess sets, although it is not clear if a single complete period-accurate set can be assembled from the pieces. When found, the hoard contained 94 objects: 78 chess pieces, 14 tablemen (pieces for backgammon or similar games) and one belt buckle.”   Wikipedia

Eilean Donan Castle, Scotland

The first castle on the island was built in the 12th or 13th century during the reign of King Alexander II (1214-1249). It was built to protect the lands of Kintail from Viking invaders, who controlled much of Scotland’s west coast and Hebridean islands.  In the early 1300s, when Robert the Bruce was disowned by many of the Clan Chiefs and hunted by the English, he took refuge at Eilean Donan between 1306-7 after his defeat at the Battle of Methven.  In 1911 Lt Colonel John Macrae-Gilstrap bought the island, and with the help of Farquhar MacRae, started work on rebuilding the castle. Work commenced in 1912 and took 20 years to complete. The cost was £250,000 (nearly £18 Million at today’s values).  It’s said that the design of the castle we see today came to Farquhar MacRae in a dream. The conception was later confirmed to be faithful to the original design when old plans were discovered stored in Edinburgh Castle. Scottish Tours.

Wat Umong, Chiang Mai, Thailand

“The Wat Umong was founded at the end of the 13th century by King Mengrai, first King of the Lanna Kingdom and founder Chiang Mai.  According to local legend, the King regularly consulted a monk who lived at the Wat Umong Maha Thera Chan, a temple located within the old city walls of Chiang Mai. The monk named Thera Chan used a tunnel to meditate in peace and quiet.  When the city of Chiang Mai grew bigger and more crowded, the monk found it more and more difficult to meditate. King Mengrai wanted to accommodate the monk and ordered a number of tunnels dug out in a man made mound outside the city, in a forested area bordering Doi Suthep mountain. The tunnels were lined with brick walls, plastered and Buddhist murals were painted. Shrines with images of the Buddha were added, giving the monk a new place to meditate in peace and quiet.  The temple was abandoned during the 15th century.”  Renown Travel.

Cattedrale di Santa Maria del Fiore, Florence, Italy

“Florence Cathedral, formally the Cattedrale di Santa Maria del Fiore (Italian pronunciation: [katteˈdraːle di ˈsanta maˈriːa del ˈfjoːre]; in English Cathedral of Saint Mary of the Flower), is the cathedral of Florence, Italy (Italian: Duomo di Firenze). It was begun in 1296 in the Gothic style to a design of Arnolfo di Cambio and was structurally completed by 1436, with the dome engineered by Filippo Brunelleschi.[1] The exterior of the basilica is faced with polychrome marble panels in various shades of green and pink, bordered by white, and has an elaborate 19th-century Gothic Revival façade by Emilio De Fabris.” Wikipedia.

Chirk Castle, Wales

This amazingly well-preserved castle was built in 1295 as part of King Edward's Ring of Iron.  This ring fortresses was meant to subdue the Welsh, who were opposed to English rule.  

Boudhanath Stupa, Kathmandu, Nepal

“Built some time around the 14th century, the huge meditative monument is said to have been created just after the passing of the Buddha. The huge offering site quickly become an focal point of worship and offering in the area. The structure of the building consists of a giant dome, on the top which sits a Buddhist pyramid tower. All of this sits on top of huge steps shaped like mandalas themselves. Originally the stupa’s spot was on an important trade route which allowed for a steady stream of possible converts. Among the Nepalese in Kathmandu, the stupa is simply referred to as “Chorten Chenpo” which translates to “Great Tower” or just “Great Stupa.” No matter what pilgrims called it, they flocked to the monument in droves.” Atlas Obscura.

Holy Blood Procession, Bruges, Belgium

“The Procession of the Holy Blood, that dates back to at least 1303, takes place in Bruges every yrea on Ascension Day. Althought there have been many changes over the centuries, the heart of the event is the reenactment of the passion and resurrection of Jesus Christ. For as long as anyone can remember, the pageant has been divided into four parts. Legend has it that in 1150, after the second Crusade, Thierry d'Alsace, Count of Flanders, brought the relic of the Holy Blood of Jesus back from Jerusalem, to be placed in the Basicila on the Burg. What we know for sure is that the legend contains several elements of popular belief and folklore. The Procession of the Holy Blood was added to the representative list of intangible cultural heritage of humanity (2009).” Visit Flanders, Holy Blood Procession.

Whitney Plantation, Louisiana

“The Whitney Plantation began sugar production in the 1750s.  Like all plantations in this region at the time, enslaved black people were the primary source of labor.  More than 350 slaves worked the plantation.  We learned from our visit that the phrase “sold down the river” was coined here to scare rebellious slaves in other parts of the south.  Being “sold down the river” meant being sold to a plantation in Louisiana, where the brutality of the white plantation owners, the horrible working conditions, and the tropical diseases often meant a death sentence for the slaves sent there.  Whitney is a powerful educational museum dedicated to telling the story of slavery before the Civil War, as well as the lasting legacy of that slavery on Americans today.

Fort Clatsop (Lewis & Clark Expedition), Oregon

“Fort Clatsop was the winter encampment for the Corps of Discovery [Lewis & Clark Expedition] from December 1805 to March 1806.” National Park Service.

Bent's Old Fort, Colorado

Bent's Old Fort (1933-29) was situated on the Santa Fe Trail, and was by most accounts an important and peaceful trading post.  However, it primarily traded in bison hides, which contributed to the utter destruction of tribal subsistence on the plains.  

Fort Jefferson, Dry Tortugas, Florida

Fort Jefferson, which sits 70 miles west of Key West, Florida, we originally constructed as a military outpost.  It was later converted to a prison, and in 1868 to 1867 it housed Dr. Samuel Mudd.  Mudd was the physician who treated John Wilkes Booth’s leg after he assassinated Abraham Lincoln.  Whether or not Mudd was actually involved in the conspiracy is still somewhat contentious. 

Battle of Little Bighorn, Wyoming

"The Battle of the Little Bighorn was fought along the ridges, steep bluffs, and ravines of the Little Bighorn River, in south-central Montana on June 25-26, 1876. The combatants were warriors of the Lakota Sioux, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho tribes, battling men of the 7th Regiment of the US Cavalry, along with their Crow, and Arikara scouts. The Battle of the Little Bighorn has come to symbolize the clash of two vastly dissimilar cultures: the buffalo/horse culture of the northern plains tribes, and the highly industrial based culture of the United States. This battle was not an isolated confrontation, but part of a much larger strategic campaign designed to force the capitulation of the nonreservation Lakota and Cheyenne."  Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument Website.

Fort Union, New Mexico

Fort Union served as a colonial enforcement and supply center along the Santa Fe Trail.  “Fort Union functioned as an agent of political and cultural change, whether desired or not, in New Mexico and throughout the Southwest.” National Park Service, Fort Union National Monument.

Ghost Towns of Colorado and New Mexico

We have visited a number of ghost towns in New Mexico and Colorado, and they vary considerably in their historical significance, state of decay and accessibility.  Most were boom-to-bust mining towns, though some faded away due to environmental or social changes.  We love visiting them, and we have many more on our to-do list.  Here are some of the most interesting (dates are approximate): Elizabethtown NM, near Taos (1866-1917), Guadalupe NM, near Albuquerque (1898-1958), Animas Forks CO, near Silverton (1873-1910), Mills NM, in northeastern New Mexico (1889-1940s) and Irontown CO, between Silverton and Ouray (1893-1960s).

Sand Creek Massacre National Historic Site, Colorado

The Sand Creek Massacre Site (1864) is the location of one of America's worst unprovoked and unjust crimes against humanity.  This attack was carried out by the US Cavalry under the command of John Chivington, and resulted in the death of approximately 150 Cheyenne and Arapaho, most of whom were women and children.  The nearby Bent's Fort shows how Americans used capitalism to destroy, while Sand Creek shows how we used our military.  "Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it" George Santayana

Colonel George Custer massacres Cheyenne on Washita River, Oklahoma

“Without bothering to identify the village or do any reconnaissance, Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer leads an early morning attack on a band of peaceful Cheyenne living with Chief Black Kettle.  Convicted of desertion and mistreatment of soldiers earlier that year in a military court, the government had suspended Custer from rank and command for one year. Ten months into his punishment, in September 1868, General Philip Sheridan reinstated Custer to lead a campaign against Cheyenne Indians who had been making raids in Kansas and Oklahoma that summer.  Within a few hours, the village was destroyed—the soldiers had killed 103 Cheyenne, including the peaceful Black Kettle and many women and children.” History Channel.

Skagway, Alaska

The Klondike Gold Rush thunders up the mountains near Skagway, and into Canada’s Yukon Territory.

Guadalupe, New Mexico

In the 1920’s, this community was home to nearly 350 people.  However, in the 1930’s drought hit the region, and in 1930 the log-and-brush dam on the Rio Puerco failed, and was not rebuilt.  As in Cabezon, the village then started to fade away.  The school, post office and store closed in 1958.

Ypres, Belgium

The ancient city of Ypres (dating back to before the first century BC) was caught between the Allied and German lines in World War I.  They city sat in “no mans land,” and was regularly shelled by both sides.  The trenches on both sides were hellholes, infested with rats and disease. 

Hearst Castle, San Simeon, California

Hearst Castle, known formally as La Cuesta Encantada, was constructed by newspaper publisher (and some might argue propogandist) William Randolph Hearst.  In its prime, it was a symbol of extravagance and a hub of celebrity.

La Roche-en-Ardenne, Battle of the Bulge

In the winter of 1944/45, Germany launched one last offensive aimed at breaking allied lines.  The goal was to push through the heavily-wooded and mountainous region of the Ardennes (between Belgium and Luxembourg) and capture the Belgian port of Antwerp.  While the Germans caught the allies by surprise, they did not achieve their goal.  By this point, the Germans were overstretched and outgunned.  The museum at La Roche-en-Ardenne tells the fascinating story of allied troops defending their positions in the brutal winter against a determined German onslaught. 

Trinity Site, New Mexico

On July 16, 1945, one week after the establishment of White Sands Missile Range (WSMR), the world’s first atomic bomb was detonated in the north-central portion of the missile range, approximately 60 miles north of White Sands National Monument.  National Park Service, Trinity Site,